Although we often refer to all western, symphonic concert music as “classical”, within this broader designation, works written roughly between 1750-1820 are considered to be from the Classical period. The works from this time frame are some of the most familiar and most performed today with composer names that are still well-known, such as Mozart, Haydn, and, of course, Beethoven. During this time period, main genres of classical music, such as the symphony, sonata, and string quartet were formalized into a standard structure.

The music of the Classical period is a departure, and in some ways a reaction to the music of the Baroque period which immediately proceeded it. Baroque music, as typified by the works of Johann Sebastian Bach, featured long, complicated, ornate melodies. Over the course of a piece, there would be many harmonic centers. Usually groups utilized a basso continuo, which was a keyboard instrument and a low string that together played the bass line. The keyboard player would not have the chords written out for them, but rather, would make up the accompaniment as the performance was happening. Solo performers were expected to be able to ornament their parts during performance by adding trills, runs, accents, and other decorations to the melody to make it their own. Most Baroque composers picked an emotion to portray in each piece, but as an abstract concept, rather than a personal reaction.

In mid-18th century Europe a new style, Classicism, took over the arts, including architecture, sculpture, painting, literature, and music. Artists used ancient Greece as an inspiration, prizing balance, structure, and an overall cleaner and clearer style. In music this meant an emphasis on a single melody line, supported by a formal structure of chords beneath and more highly structured and expected format for compositions. Music was influenced by innovations in science and philosophy as well. Isaac Newton (1642-1726/7) revolutionized science through his discoveries and subsequent writings about the physical world. His ideas were orderly and based on well-thought-out reason. Music followed suit and composers sought to have their music follow these ideals. Often composers would write a four-measure melody ending in half cadence, which would then be answered by another four-measure melody that would end with a full cadence. These regularly structured melodies almost sound like two statements, a question and then an answer, following the influence of the axioms used throughout Newton’s work.

Economics also influenced changes in music. During the Baroque period composers were often employed by a city and were in charge of all of the music, both secular and sacred within the town. This gave the composer a large amount of resources to draw on, allowing works to be performed by larger groups of musicians and singers. In the Classical period the nobility became the most important musical patrons and they usually employed smaller groups of musicians. This led to a standardization of instruments required to perform certain works, such as a symphony. Since a composer knew what instruments would be available to them each part would be written with a specific instrument in mind, unlike in the Baroque where some parts could be played by any number of instruments, based on the preference of the conductor or the availability of musicians. Quite often, noble patrons paid for new string quartets or sonatas to be written and performed in their salons, influencing the genres in which composers wrote.

There was also an economic rise of a small middle class. These families had a bit of extra money and could use it for entertainment. These concert goers enjoyed comic operas with their entertaining stories and high-quality arias. Composers wrote operas that they knew people would spend their money to come and see, just like today when Hollywood regularly produces superhero and fantasy blockbusters they know will draw crowds.

The Classical period saw some important changes in the actual notation of music as well. As stated previously, Baroque musicians were expected to add their own style to the music they played, whether they were the featured soloist or providing the accompaniment. In the Classical period composers wanted to make sure that what they wrote is what the musicians actually played. With its emphasis on the single melody line, composers started adding markings to emphasize dynamics and phrasing. Dynamics tell the musician how loud or soft to play by including abbreviations for Italian terms; 𝒑 for piano, which means soft, and 𝒇 for forte, for loud, and various others in-between. Phrasing is a way of shaping the melody so it sounds like a complete thought, not just a group of unconnected notes.

Phrasing in music is similar to diction in language. Where you place emphasis on a note or word and where you pause can greatly affect the meaning and effectiveness of the statement. Composers and musicians would pay careful attention to the phrasing of the melody to make sure it was clear and balanced. Composers in the Classical period wrote in the ornaments they wanted the performer to play, unlike in the Baroque period where the performer was free to improvise and add what they wanted. In general, there is much less ornamentation in Classical pieces and the ornaments are used in specific places to draw attention to an important moment in the work. The reason for most of these changes is because melodies in the Classical period became much simpler. With one melody line over a set of chords, every detail of performance from volume to phrasing to ornaments was important to make the idea shine.

Equal temperament became the standard in the Classical period, allowing the composer to use all the keys available to them. Temperament is the way the notes of the scale are divided and sets up their relationship to each other. For a long time, there were many different systems of temperament that had mixed results. Some temperament systems worked great for certain keys, but left others unusable because the ratios between notes did not work out. It wasn’t until the Classical period that equal temperament became the standard system, allowing all 24 major and minor keys to be used since, under this system, all of the scales and cadences had the same ratios and sounded the same.

Many instruments underwent technical upgrades during the Classical period. By adding keys, for example, instrumentalists were able to play more complex compositions. During the Classical period the fortepiano, a slightly different version of the modern piano, became the standard keyboard instrument, replacing the harpsichord. The difference in the mechanisms for producing the sound allowed wider dynamic contrast and the ability to play more prolonged notes. (learn more detail about Beethoven’s pianos in Adventures Scene Three).

The orchestra changed during the Classical period as well. Groups became larger, adding more strings. The woodwinds (flute, oboe, clarinet, and bassoon) became their own section and were used more often to add a new color to the orchestra. By the end of the Classical period, the orchestra as we would recognize it, featuring groups of strings, winds and brass in pairs, plus percussion, was a standard group.

The Classical period brought many new innovations to music, in style and technique. During the Classical period some of the main forms of classical music, the symphony, the string quartet, and the sonata became standard forms, that composers today still use. A lot of the music written during this time period is extremely popular and is often performed every year by orchestras around the world.